Special Report

Japan's Environmental Policy 日本の環境政策(対訳版)

谷 みどり
コンサルティングフェロー

本稿は2015年2月6日に 改訂 されました。
This report was revised on February 6, 2015.

Abstract 要旨

Having experienced severe problems associated with pollution during 1950s and 1960s, Japan has been strengthening its environmental policy. Regulations over water and air quality were enforced under the Water Pollution Control Law and the Air Pollution Control Law, resulting in a reduction of pollutants during the 1970s and 1980s.
日本は、1950年代、1960年代に激しい公害問題を経験し、環境政策を強化した。水質汚濁防止法や大気汚染防止法に基づいて水質や大気の規制が強化され、1970年代から1980年代にかけて汚染が減少した。

If these actions had been taken earlier, the costs incurred by the pollution could have been reduced substantially. Developing countries can avoid such high costs attributed to policy delays by taking early action to improve their environments.
もし、より早い時期に行動がとられていたら、汚染によってかかった費用は相当少なくてすんだだろう。発展途上国は、早期に環境を改善する行動をとることにより、政策の遅れによる高い費用を回避することができる。

Global warming became a very important environmental problem in the 1990s. Japan has been active both in domestic measures to mitigate emissions of greenhouse gases, such as disseminating technologies on renewable energy and energy conservation, and in efforts to formulate international agreements on climate change, such as hosting a conference to agree upon the Kyoto Protocol.
1990年代に、地球温暖化が非常に重要な環境問題になった。日本は、再生可能エネルギーや省エネルギー技術の普及などの温室効果ガスを削減する国内対策と、京都議定書について合意する会議の主催等の気候変動に関する国際合意を形成する努力の双方で、活発に行動した。

Introduction はじめに

Environmental policy encompasses a wide variety of areas. For example, management of natural parks, biodiversity, control of chemicals, soil contamination, environmental assessments, waste management, and recycling all fall under the responsibility of the Ministry of the Environment in Japan. However, the scope of this paper is limited to water quality, air quality, and global warming, with the objective of providing a very basic introduction to environmental policy in Japan that can be helpful to other countries.
環境政策は多くの分野にわたる。たとえば、自然公園の管理、生物多様性、化学物質の管理、土壌汚染、環境評価、廃棄物管理とリサイクルは、日本では環境省の責任の下にある。しかし、この章の範囲は、水質、大気と地球温暖化に限定し、他の国に役立つように日本の環境政策のごく基本的な事項を紹介する。

This is to give a simple picture of environmental policy to readers who have an interest in Japanese administration in general, and not to offer advice on specific regulations. This paper uses simple and clear expressions, which are not necessarily legally correct terms, and also provides links to websites for more details. Those who wish to obtain information on each regulation for more specific purposes, such as for concluding contracts, should read the original regulations and guidelines, and not depend on this paper.
これは、日本の行政一般に関心がある読者に対して環境政策の概要を示すためであり、個別の規制についてアドバイスを与えるためではない。この文書では、必ずしも法律的に正確な表現でなく簡明な表現を用い、より詳細についてはウェブサイトを列記している。契約締結のため等、より個別の目的で個々の規制についての情報を得たい人は、この文書に頼るのではなく規制やガイドラインの原文を読むべきである。

Background 背景

The Basic Law for Environmental Pollution Control was legislated in 1967 and the Environment Agency was established in 1971. In 2001, the Ministry of the Environment was established with stronger mandates. (注1)
公害対策基本法が1967年に立法され、1971年に環境庁が設立された。2001年に環境省が設立され、権限が強化された。

Concrete Policy Measures 具体的な政策

1. Protecting Environmental Quality of Water 水質保全

1-1 History of water pollution control 水質汚濁防止の歴史

Water pollution has a long history in Japan. In the 19th century, local residents in the downstream part of the Watarase River suffered from pollution caused by a copper mine upstream. A booklet named, "Water Environmental Management in Japan" includes details of such history, (注2) together with overall policies and data related to the water environment in Japan. The outbreak of Minamata Disease, which occurred as a result of methylmercury poisoning, was first reported in 1956. People were affected after eating large quantities of fish that had ingested and accumulated methylmercury, after the toxin was discharged into Minamata Bay by chemical plants. (注3)
水質汚濁は日本で長い歴史がある。19世紀、渡良瀬川下流の住民は、上流の銅鉱山による汚染に苦しんだ。「日本の水環境」という冊子に、水環境に関するこのような歴史や政策全体やデータが載っている。1956年には、メチル水銀中毒の結果起きた水俣病の最初の例が報告された。化学工場から水俣湾に排出されたメチル水銀を魚が摂取して蓄積し、このような魚を多く食べた人々が被害を受けた。

During the 1960s, problems of environmental pollution in water increased. For example, cadmium contamination in the Jinzu River caused a disease that makes bones brittle. Also, an increase in organic matter decreased oxygen levels in many rivers, bays and lakes, creating a number of adverse effects for local people including pungent odors, diminished fish populations, and poisonous plankton and bacteria, which grew in such water.
1960年代、水質汚濁の環境問題は悪化した。たとえば、神通川のカドミウム汚染は、骨をもろくする病気を起こした。また、多くの川や湾や湖で増加した有機物が酸素を減らし、地域住民は悪臭、魚の減少、水中での毒のある浮遊生物や細菌の増殖に苦しんだ。

Thus, the Water Pollution Control Law was legislated in 1970 (注4) , and the Interim Law for Conservation of the Environment of the Seto Inland Sea was legislated in 1973. The Seto Inland Sea is the body of water, located between the main island of Honshu and the islands of Shikoku and Kyushu, which needs special measures to limit the total amount of pollutants. The interim law became permanent in 1978. In order to reduce pollution in lakes such as Lake Biwa, which provides water for many people including those living in Kyoto and Osaka, the Law Concerning Special Measures for the Preservation of Lake Water Quality was legislated in 1984.
このため、水質汚濁防止法が1970年に立法され、瀬戸内海環境保全臨時措置法が1973年に立法された。瀬戸内海は、主な島である本州と、四国、九州の間の水域で、汚濁物質の総量規制を必要としている。臨時措置法は1978年に恒久法となった。大阪の住民など多くの人々の水源である琵琶湖などの湖の汚染を減らすため、1984年には湖沼水質保全特別措置法が立法された。

1-2 Regulation of Effluents 排水規制

The central government and local governments cooperate closely to protect water quality in accordance with the three laws (the Water Pollution Control Law, the Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of the Environment of the Seto Inland Sea, and the Law Concerning Special Measures for Conservation of Lake Water Quality).
国と地方自治体は、三法(水質汚濁防止法、瀬戸内海環境保全特別措置法、湖沼水質保全特別措置法)に従って水質保全で緊密に協力する。

The laws have many provisions, among which are regulations covering the level of pollutants in effluents. Those who manage factories and other commercial facilities which discharge effluents are obliged to measure the pollution level of the effluents and keep records of the measurements in accordance with the order issued by the Ministry of the Environment. The Minister of the Environment, prefectural governors and mayors of designated cities request reports from factories and other commercial facilities on their effluents, and conduct on-site inspections when necessary. If it is found that any effluent violates the standards, a punishment may be enforced. Also, an order may be issued to modify the construction of the facility or the method of wastewater treatment.
これらの法には、排水の汚濁水準の規制等多くの規定がある。排水する工場等の事業場は、環境省令に従って排水の汚濁水準を測定し結果を保存しなければならない。環境大臣、知事、指定された市の市長は、必要があれば、工場その他の事業場から排水に関する報告を求め、立ち入り検査をすることができる。もし排水が基準に違反していれば、罰則を執行することができる。また、施設の構造や排水処理の方法を変更する命令を出すこともできる。

Under the Water Pollution Control Law, the Ministry of the Environment sets standards for effluents from factories and other commercial facilities that discharge wastewater into public waters such as seas, rivers, and lakes. (注5)
水質汚濁防止法に基づき、環境大臣は、海、川、湖のような公共水域に排水を出す工場その他の事業上の排水基準を設定する。

There are two categories of the effluent standards. One category is related to the protection of human health and includes standards on pollutants such as mercury and cadmium, which can cause diseases. Another is related to the protection of the living environment and includes standards such as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), which are indicators of water quality for organic contamination. High levels of organic contamination can cause a shortage of oxygen in the water. This category also includes nitrogen and phosphorus, which act as fertilizers to increase the growth of undesirable plankton and algae.
排水基準には2つの区分がある。1つは人の健康に関するものである。これは、水銀やカドミウムなど、病気の原因となりうる汚染物質の基準を含む。もう1つは生活環境に関するものである。これは、有機物による汚染を示す水質の指標である生物化学的酸素要求量(BOD)や化学的酸素要求量(COD)を含む。有機物による高水準の汚染は、水中の酸素不足を起こす可能性がある。この区分には、望ましくない浮遊生物や藻の繁殖を増やす肥料となる窒素や燐も含まれる。

Stricter standards are applied to some areas. For example, total volumes of some pollutants are regulated, in addition to the densities, in Tokyo Bay, Ise Bay and the Seto Inland Sea. Also, local governments in some areas set effluent standards stricter than the uniform national standards.
一部の水域では、より厳しい基準が適用される。たとえば、東京湾、伊勢湾、瀬戸内海では、濃度に加え、一部の汚濁物質の総量が規制される。また、一部の地域の地方自治体は、国の統一的基準よりも厳しい排水基準を設定している。

The Ministry of the Environment surveys the enforcement of all three laws. In FY 2008, the number of facilities subject to effluent control totaled around 277,000, including approximately 68,000 hotels and inns. Of these facilities, about 44,000 were subject to on-site inspections resulting in roughly 7,600 cases of administrative guidance. 23 administrative orders were issued to improve the situation, one order to suspend operations was issued, and 13 arrests were made for infringements of effluent standards. (注6)
環境省は、三法の施行を調査する。2008年度には、約27万7000の事業場が排水管理の対象で、そのうち約6万8000はホテル・旅館だった。これらの施設のうち、4万4000で立ち入り検査が行われ、7600の事例で行政指導が行われた。状況を改善するために23の行政命令が出され、事業を止める行政命令が1件出された。排出基準違反による逮捕は13件あった。

1-3 Policy Measures for Household Wastewater 生活排水対策

Effluents from household activities such as cooking, laundry, and bathing have been a major cause of pollution of public waters. In order to treat waste water from households, the government has been promoting the construction of sewerage systems, which brought the proportion of the population who have access to sewerage to 71.7% in FY 2007. For areas without sewerage systems, mostly in mountainous areas or areas with low population densities, rural community wastewater treatment facilities and household wastewater treatment facilities, called johkaso , have been developed with the aid of subsidies, bringing the proportion of the population with access to wastewater treatment facilities to 83.7% in FY2007. (注7)
料理、洗濯、風呂などからの生活排水は、公共水域の汚濁の大きな要素であった。家庭からの排水を処理するため、政府は下水の設備建設を促進し、下水の人口普及率は、2007年度には71.7%となった。下水のない地域は、主に山間部か人口密度の低い地域であり、農業集落排水施設や浄化槽と呼ばれる家庭用の排水処理設備が、排水処理のために開発されて施設建設には補助金が出され、汚水処理人口普及率は2007年度には83.7%となった。

In order to reduce pollution from households, efforts have been made to disseminate information on water quality so as to raise public awareness. The Ministry of the Environment and local governments have created various publications and homepages and called for a more environmentally sound use of water. Along with the heightened public awareness, producers of detergents have changed their products to those which are less harmful to the environment. For example, detergents without phosphorus were developed in the late 1970s, and most of the detergents in Japan are without phosphorus today.
家庭からの排水を減らすため、水質についての情報を広めて国民の意識を高める努力が行われている。環境省と地方自治体はさまざまな出版物やホームページを作り、環境に配慮した水の使用を呼びかけてきた。国民の意識向上とともに、洗剤の製造者は、環境への悪影響の少ない製品に、商品を変更してきた。たとえば、1970年代に無燐洗剤が開発され、現在日本のほとんどの洗剤は無燐になっている。

1-4 Monitoring and Publicizing Water Quality 水質の監視と公表

Local governments monitor the quality of water in seas, rivers, lakes, and groundwater, according to the common items and methods set by the Ministry of the Environment, and compare them with environmental quality standards. The Ministry of the Environment collects and publicizes the results and other information related to water quality so as to raise public awareness and encourage further action to protect the environment.
地方自治体が、環境省が決めた共通の項目と方法に従って、海、河川、湖沼、地下水の水質を監視し環境基準と比較する。環境省は、監視結果とその他の水質関係の情報を集めて公表し、国民の意識を高めて、環境保全のための一層の行動を奨励する。

As for the items related to protection of human health, the compliance rate of environmental quality standards was 99.0% in FY 2008. (注8) Studies are made on each point where any substance exceeds the standard, and measures are taken to meet the standard. Most of the excesses in human health items had been taken care of during the 20th century, and a substantial proportion of the excesses still remaining were found to be from natural causes, such as high arsenic contents in nearby rocks or soil. Measures are taken for other excess sites where causes of the excess were found. Monitoring continues for sites in which the cause of the excess has not been determined. (注9)
人の健康に関連する項目ついて、2008年度の環境基準達成率は99.0%だった。いずれかの項目で基準を超過した地点ごとに調査が行われ、基準を達成するための対策がとられる。人の健康に関する項目の大部分は20世紀中に対策がとられ、残っている超過地点の相当部分は、近隣の岩石か土壌の砒素含有量が高いなどの自然起因である。超過原因が判明した地点については、対策がとられている。調査原因が不明の地点では、監視を継続する。

As for the items related to the living environment, achievement rates have been increasing but are lower than those for the items related to protection of human health. In FY 2008, in terms of the standards on indicators of water quality for organic contamination, the overall compliance rate was 87.4%, reaching a record- high, but the achievement rate for lakes and reservoirs remained as low as 53.0%. The compliance rate for total nitrogen and total phosphorus in lakes and reservoirs was also low, at 50.0%. (注10)
生活環境に関連する項目についての達成率は増加しているが、人の健康に関連する項目よりは低い。2008年度では、有機汚濁に関連する指標の基準について、全体の達成率は87.4%だったが、湖沼での達成率は53.0%と低かった。湖沼での全窒素と全燐の達成率も50%と低かった。

In order to encourage efforts to make further improvements, all rivers and lakes are ranked in their quality of water, and the top five cleanest and worst five dirtiest rivers and lakes, in terms of water quality for organic contamination are determined. These rankings are publicized so as to raise awareness on the water environment. In addition, the top five rivers and lakes which had the largest improvements in water quality are also publicized, so as to recognize the efforts that have been made. Sightseeing businesses on rivers and lakes are especially interested in raising the ranking for their sites. (注11)
一層の改善を奨励するため、すべての河川と湖沼が水質によって順位付けられ、水質の有機汚濁の観点から最もきれいな5つと最悪の5つが決定される。これらの順位は、水環境についての認識を高めるために公表されている。また、水質改善のために行われた努力を認識するため、最も水質が改善された5つも公表される。河川や湖沼の観光業者は、その地域の順位に特に関心を持つ。

Swimming beaches pose a good opportunity for raising awareness in water quality among the public and local business community. In the beginning of summer each year, water quality of swimming beaches are graded and publicized. If any beach is found to be lower than the lowest passing grade, swimming is not allowed. In 2009, 850 beaches were ranked and 542 were found to have a water quality of grade AA, the highest; 5 were found to have a water quality of grade C, the lowest passing grade; and no beach was found to be below grade C. (注12) Also, in 2006, the Ministry of the Environment selected the 100 best beaches and publicized information related to their environment, access, etc., through its homepage. (注13) Although the homepage is in Japanese, pictures and local maps can be seen by clicking on the beaches in the map.
水浴場も、住民や地域の産業界の水質に関する認識を向上させる良い機会を提供する。毎年夏の初めに、水浴場の水質の等級がつけられて公表される。もし最低の合格等級以下であれば、そこで泳ぐことは禁止される。2009年には850の水浴場に等級がつけられた。542はAAの最高等級で、5が最低の合格等級であるCで、Cより下の等級のところはなかった。また、2006年に環境省によって100の最高の水浴場が選ばれ、これらの環境、交通手段等に関する情報が環境省のホームページで公表された。ホームページは日本語だが、地図の水浴場をクリックすれば写真や地図などが見られる。

As for the groundwater, regular measurements are made by prefectures and the results and causes of pollution are publicized by the Ministry of the Environment. In FY2008, groundwater from 4,290 wells was measured, among which 295 wells (6.9% of the total) had substances exceeding the environmental quality standards. Among the 6.9%, the largest proportion, 4.4%, had nitrate nitrogen/nitrite nitrogen in excess of the standard. (注14) Such wells are often found in areas where a large amount of fertilizer is used or manure from livestock is not treated properly. Household wastewater also causes such pollution. Since babies who are drinking water with excessive nitrate nitrogen/nitrite nitrogen can suffer from anemia, environmentally sound management is called for in agriculture and stockbreeding, so as to emit less nitrogen into the groundwater.
地下水は、都道府県によって定期的に測定され、結果や汚染原因が環境省によって公表されている。2008年度は4290の井戸の地下水が測定され、うち295(6.9%)の井戸で環境基準を越えた物質があった。この6.9%のうち最大の割合である4.4%の井戸では硝酸性窒素/亜硝酸性窒素が基準を超過していた。このような井戸は、肥料を多用したり家畜の糞尿が適切に処理されていなかったりする地域でよくみられる。生活排水もこのような汚染の原因となる。硝酸性窒素/亜硝酸性窒素が過剰な水を飲んでいる乳児は貧血になるおそれがあるため、農業や畜産での環境に配慮した管理によって地下水に排出する窒素を減らすことが求められる。

1-5 Policies on non-point sources, river management and drinking water 面源、河川管理、水道関係の政策

The measures mentioned above were effective in making improvements in most rivers and seas, but improvements in the quality of water in some lakes were found to be unsatisfactory, as shown in Figure 1. Thus, the Lake Water Study Committee in the Ministry of the Environment agreed that additional actions were needed in 2004. (注15) In 2005, the Law Concerning Special Measures for the Preservation of Lake Water Quality was amended, to include measures to reduce pollution from non-point sources such as agriculture. For example, more appropriate use of fertilizers is encouraged in certain areas designated under the law to reduce inflow of nitrogen and phosphorus to a lake. The amended law also includes measures to preserve lake shores' natural vegetation, which is effective for improving the quality of water.
図1にみられるように上記の対策が効を奏してほとんどの川や海で水質が改善したのに、一部の湖沼では水質改善が不十分だった。このため、環境省の湖沼研究会は2004年に追加的対策の必要性に合意した。2005年、湖沼水質保全特別措置法が改正され、農業などの面源対策が追加された。たとえば、法で指定された地域では、窒素や燐の湖沼への流入を減らすため、肥料のより良い使い方が奨励される。改正された法律には、水質保全に効果がある湖岸の植生の保全対策も含まれる。

Figure 1. Trends toward Achieving EQSs (Biochemical Oxygen Demand or Chemical Oxygen Demand) (注16)
図1 環境基準の達成状況 (生物化学的酸素要求量又は化学的酸素要求量) 図1 環境基準の達成状況

The River Bureau in the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism also works for improving the environment in rivers and lakes. The 1997 amended River Law added improvement and conservation of the environment to the list of the fundamental tasks of river administration. (注17) In "environment-focused river management" by the River Bureau, several projects have been carried out to improve water quality and protect the natural environment. For example, water in some dam lakes is purified by aeration (mixing air into water). (注18)
国土交通省の河川局も、河川や湖沼の環境改善のために働いている。1997年に改正された河川法は、環境の改善と保全を河川管理の基本的な仕事の1つに加えた。河川局の「環境に焦点を当てた河川管理」によれば、水質改善と自然環境保全のために、いくつかのプロジェクトが実施されている。たとえば、一部のダムでは、通気(空気を水に混ぜる)による水質浄化が行われている。

Efforts by public organizations to protect the quality of drinking water are important, too. To this end, the Drinking Water Sources Law and the Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water Quality (注19) were established in 1994. The Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare publicizes activities by municipalities to protect drinking water sources. (注20)
飲料水の水質保全のための公的な組織の努力も重要である。このため、水道原水水質保全事業法と水道水源特別措置法が1994年に創設された。厚生労働省は、市町村による水道水源の保全の取組を発表している。

2. Protecting Environmental Quality of Atmosphere 大気環境の保全

2-1 History of Air Pollution and Environmental Quality Standards of Air 大気汚染の歴史と大気環境基準

Around 1960, the number of asthmatic patients increased in certain areas close to large petrochemical factories. The air in the neighborhood was found to be polluted by SOx. (注21)
1960年頃、大規模な石油化学工場付近の特定の地域で喘息患者が増加した。周辺の大気が硫黄酸化物で汚染されていた。

In order to cope with such problems of air pollution, the Air Pollution Control Law was legislated in 1968 (注22) . The law has provisions to protect air quality by measures such as to control emissions of soot and smoke and particulate matters from factories and to set maximum permissible limits for automobile exhaust.
このような大気汚染問題に対処するため、大気汚染防止法が1968年に立法された。この法は、工場からの煤煙や粉塵の排出を管理し自動車の排気ガスの上限を設定することなどにより大気の質を保全するための規定を有している。

The Ministry of the Environment is responsible for setting environmental quality standards of atmosphere. Table 1 shows the actual level of standards.
環境省は、大気の環境基準を設定する責任がある。表1がその基準を示す。

Table 1. Environmental Quality Standards of Atmosphere (注23)
表1 大気の環境基準
Substance 項目 Environmental conditions 環境基準値
SO 2 (Sulfur dioxide) The daily average for hourly values shall not exceed 0.04 ppm, and hourly values shall not exceed 0.1 ppm
CO (Carbon monoxide) The daily average for hourly values shall not exceed 10 ppm, and average of hourly values for any consecutive eight hour period shall not exceed 20ppm
SPM (Suspended particulate matter) The daily average for hourly values shall not exceed 0.10 mg/㎥, and hourly values shall not exceed 0.20 mg/㎥
NO 2 (Nitrogen dioxide) The daily average for hourly values shall be within the 0.04-0.06 ppm zone or below that zone
Ox (Photochemical oxidants) Hourly values shall not exceed 0.06 ppm
Substance 項目 Environmental conditions 環境基準値
Benzene Annual average shall not exceed 0.003 mg/㎥
Trichloroethylene Annual average shall not exceed 0.2 mg/㎥
Tetrachloroethylene Annual average shall not exceed 0.2 mg/㎥
Dichloromethane Annual average shall not exceed 0.15 mg/㎥
Substance 項目 Environmental conditions 環境基準値
Dioxins (PCDDs, PCDFs and coplanar PCBs) Annual average shall not exceed 0.6pg-TEQ/㎥

2-2 Regulating Emissions from Sources 排出規制

The Air Pollution Control Law also has provisions for enforcing regulations. Pollutants are generated mainly from facilities such as factories and mobile sources such as motor vehicles.
大気汚染防止法には、規制の執行に関する規定もある。汚染物質は、工場などの施設や、自動車などの移動源から主に発生する。

As for factories, national emission standards are set by the Minister of the Environment, but governors of prefectures can set more stringent standards in areas under their jurisdiction. Regulation duties are conducted by prefectures and large cities.
工場については、環境省が国の排出基準を決めるが、県知事がそれぞれの地域でより厳しい基準を設定することもできる。規制の業務は県や大きな市が行う。

Any person who plans to establish a soot and smoke emitting facility must provide information such as the kind of proposed facility to the governor of their prefecture. If the governor finds that the estimated volume and concentration of the soot and smoke fails to meet the emission standard, he or she may order the notifying person to modify the plan.
煤煙発生施設を作ろうとする者は、施設の計画などの情報を県知事に提出しなければならない。知事は、予想される煤煙の発生が環境基準を超えると判断すれば、計画の変更を命じることができる。

Those who manage facilities that emit soot and smoke must measure and keep record of the volume and concentration of the soot and smoke generated according to the technical standards set by the Ministry of the Environment. If the governor of the prefecture finds that the emission is likely to continuously exceed the standards, he or she may order the person to improve the method of operation.
煤煙発生施設の管理者は、環境省が設定した技術的基準に従って、発生した煤煙の量と濃度を測定し記録を保存しなければならない。知事は、発生が持続的に基準を上回る可能性が高いことを知ったら、その者に管理の改善を命じることができる。

The Ministry of the Environment surveys the status of enforcement. For example, in FY 2008, the number of notifications from soot and smoke emitting facilities were 220,008, among which 64.4% were boilers, 15.1% were diesel engines, and 4.0% were gas- turbines. Onsite inspections were conducted at 25,506 facilities, and 9 administrative measures including issuing improvement orders were taken. (注24)
環境省は、執行状況を監視する。たとえば2008年度、煤煙発生施設の通知数は22万0008で、うち64.4%はボイラー、15.1はディーゼル機関、4.0%はガスタービンだった。立ち入り検査は2万5506件行われ、改善命令等の行政措置は9件あった。

Other laws regulating special facilities are also used for protecting air quality. For example, the Electricity Business Act (注25) has provisions for regulating power plants, and is used to ensure that the emissions from fossil fuel combustion in power plants do not exceed certain limits.
特別な施設についての他の法律も、大気の質を守るために使われる。たとえば、電気事業法には発電所を規制する規定があり、発電所での化石燃料の燃焼からの排気が一定の基準を超えないようにするために使われている。

As for mitigating roadside air pollution from mobile sources, the Air Pollution Control Law has provisions including utilization of other laws to protect air quality. Major actions under the law include the following:
道路に面した場所の移動源からの大気汚染を軽減するために、大気汚染防止法は大気の質を守るために他の法律を使う規定を含んでいる。この法に基づく主な行動には、以下が含まれる。

- The Minister of the Environment establishes maximum permissible limits on the amount of exhaust gases from motor vehicles. The Minister of the Environment also establishes maximum permissible limits on the amount of exhaust gases from non-road special motor vehicles such as construction machinery.
- 環境大臣は自動車の排気について、許容限度を設定する。環境大臣はまた、建設機械など道路関係以外の特定特殊自動車の排気ガスについての許容限度も設定する。

- The Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism establishes necessary matters on the control of emissions of motor vehicles exhaust under the Road Transportation Vehicles Law, taking care to secure the maximum permissible limits set by the Minister of the Environment.
- 国土交通大臣は、環境大臣が設定した許容限度を確保するように、道路運送車両法に基づく自動車の排気ガス管理に必要な事項を設定する。

- The Minister of the Environment sets maximum permissible limits on the quality of automobile fuel where necessary to prevent air pollution caused by automobile exhaust gases. For example, regulation on the sulfur content in gasoil has been strengthened as shown in Table 2.
- 環境大臣は、自動車の排気ガスによる大気汚染を防ぐために必要があるときは、自動車の燃料の質についての許容限度を設定する。たとえば、軽油に含まれる硫黄の規制の推移は、表2のとおり強化されてきた。

Table 2. Regulation over sulfur contents in gasoil (注26)
表2 軽油の硫黄規制
Year 年 1976 1992 1997 2004 2007
Sulfur content (ppm)
硫黄分
5,000 2,000 500 50 10

- The Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry establishes necessary matters concerning the regulation of automobile fuel by an order under the Act on the Quality Control of Gasoline and Other Fuels, taking care to secure the maximum permissible limits set by the Minister of the Environment.
- 経済産業大臣は、環境大臣が設定した許容限度を確保するように、揮発油等の品質の確保等に関する法律に基づく命令で自動車燃料の規制に関する必要な事項を定める。

In order to further mitigate emissions from motor vehicles, The Law Concerning Special Measures for Total Emission Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matters from Automobiles in Specified Areas was legislated in 2001, by amending The Law Concerning Special Measures for Total Emission Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides from Automobiles in Specified Areas ("Particulate Matters" was added to the title of the law). Under the fundamental plans to reduce the total volume of nitrogen oxides and particulate matters emitted from automobiles, special restrictions are set in areas of large concentrations of motor vehicles such as the Tokyo Metropolitan area. Only automobiles that emit Nitrogen Oxides and particulate matters below the level of certain standards, which are more stringent than the national standards, are allowed in these areas.
自動車からの排出を一層削減するため、2001年に「自動車から排出される窒素酸化物及び粒子状物質の特定地域における総量の削減等に関する特別措置法」が「自動車から排出される窒素酸化物質の特定地域における総量の削減等に関する特別措置法」の改正により制定された(名称に「粒子状物質」が加えられた)。自動車からの窒素酸化物と粒子状物質の総量を減らすための基本計画の下で、東京都など多くの車両が集中する地域では特別な規制が作られた。これらの地域では、窒素酸化物や粒子状物質の排出が国全体の基準よりより少ない自動車しか許容されない。

Regulations are revised or added when necessary. For example, new regulations over volatile organic compounds (VOCs) started in 2006. (注27)
規制は必要に応じて変更又は追加される。たとえば、2006年には揮発性有機化合物の新しい規制が始まった。

2-3 Monitoring and Publicizing Air Quality 大気の質の監視と公表

Quality of the atmosphere is measured at monitoring stations mostly by local authorities. There are two types of stations; roadside air pollution monitoring stations (RAPMSs) and ambient air pollutions monitoring stations (APMSs). There were 438 RAPMSs and 1,549 APMSs in the end of March 2009. (注28)
大気の質は、測定局で大部分は地方自治体によって測定される。測定局には2種類ある。自動車排出ガス測定局(自排局)と、一般環境大気測定局(一般局)である。2008年度末には、438の自排局と1549の一般局があった。

Data on air quality are publicized by the Ministry of the Environment through the homepage of the Atmospheric Environmental Regional Observation System. (注29) The system has a nickname called "Soramame-kun," and efforts have been made to make it interesting to the public. Although the homepage is in Japanese, data can be seen relatively easily by non-Japanese speakers by clicking on any part of the map.
大気の質に関するデータは、環境省の大気汚染物質広域監視システムのホームページで公表される。このシステムには「そらまめくん」という愛称があり、国民が関心を持つよう工夫されている。このホームページは日本語だが、地図の好きな部分をクリックすると、日本語を使わない人でも比較的簡単にデータを見ることができる。

Through the measures mentioned above, concentrations of pollutants in the atmosphere have decreased over the years, in spite of economic growth and an increase in the number of automobiles. The average annual concentration of SO 2 in the atmosphere dropped sharply during the 1970s and early 1980s, as shown in Figure 2. This was the period when factories in Japan sharply increased the installation of flue gas desulfurization facilities. In FY 1970, the total number of flue gas desulfurization facilities in Japan was 102, which increased to 1,329 in FY 1980, and 1,914 in FY 1990. (注30) In addition to environmental regulations, special loans were provided by governmental financial institutions for environmental investments, to encourage factories to install facilities such as those for desulfurization, especially during the 1970s and 80s when such financial needs for environmental investments were high.
前述のような方法で、経済成長や自動車の増加にもかかわらず、大気汚染は減少していった。図2が示すように、1970年代から1980年代初頭にかけて、大気中の二酸化硫黄の年平均値は急激に減少した。これは、日本の工場が排ガス脱硫装置の設置を急激に増加させた時期である。1970年度、日本の排ガス脱硫装置の総数は102だったが、1980年度には1329、1990年度には1914に増加した。環境規制に加え、特に1970年代から1980年代にかけて環境投資への資金需要が高かった時期には、政府系金融機関による特別融資が工場の脱硫装置等の設置を促した。

Figure 2. Changes in the Annual Averages of Sulfur Dioxide Concentration (FY1970-2001) (注31)
図2 二酸化硫黄の年平均の変化 図2 二酸化硫黄の年平均の変化

After such measures were taken in 2002, Japan had the lowest air emission intensities in SOx and NOx, apart from Switzerland, as shown in Table 3.
これらの措置がとられた後の2002年には、表3にみられるように、日本の硫黄酸化物と窒素酸化物の排出原単位は、スイスに次いで低かった。

Table 3. International comparison in Air Emission Intensities (2002) (注32)
表3 大気の排出源単位の国際比較
U.S. U.K. France Germany Japan Switzerland
SOx Per GDP 1.4 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.1
Per capita 48 17 9 7 7 3
NOx Per GDP 1.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.6 0.4
Per capita 65 26 23 17 16 12

Intensities per GDP: kg/1000USD
Intensities per capita: kg/cap.

Since the enactment of the Law Concerning Special Measures for Total Emission Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matters from Automobiles in Specified Areas in 2001, pollutants have been further reduced. (注33) Table 4 shows the decrease in NO 2 between 2001 and 2008 in the specified areas.
2001年の「自動車から排出される窒素酸化物及び粒子状物質の特定地域における総量の削減等に関する特別措置法」の施行以降、汚染は一層減少した。表4は、特定地域における2001年から2008年にかけての二酸化窒素の減少を示している。

Table 4. Changes in annual average concentration of NO 2 in the Specified Areas under the Law Concerning Special Measures for Total Emission Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides and Particulate Matter from Automobiles in Specified Areas (ppm) (注34)
表4 「自動車から排出される窒素酸化物及び粒子状物質の特定地域における総量の削減等に関する特別措置法」の特定地域における二酸化窒素の年平均値の変化 (ppm)
Year 年 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
RAPMSs
自排局
0.035 0.034 0.034 0.032 0.032 0.032 0.029 0.028
APMSs
一般局
0.024 0.023 0.022 0.021 0.021 0.021 0.019 0.018

Levels of suspended particulate matters (SPMs) have also been reduced. Table 5 shows the decrease in SPMs.
浮遊粒子状物質(SPMs)の数値も低下した。表5は、SPMの減少を示している。

Table 5. Changes in annual average concentration of SPMs (mg/㎥) (注35)
表5 浮遊粒子状物質濃度の年平均値の推移 (mg/㎥)
Year 年 1974 1980 1990 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008
APMSs
一般局
0.058 0.042 0.037 0.031 0.027 0.026 0.024 0.022
RAPMSs
自排局
0.162 0.053 0.050 0.040 0.031 0.030 0.027 0.026
3. Protecting the Earth from Global Warming 地球温暖化から地球を守る

3.1 Policy Measures to Mitigate Greenhouse Gases 温室効果ガス軽減対策

In 1997, Japan hosted the Third Conference of the Parties for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Kyoto, at which the Kyoto Protocol (注36) was agreed. The Kyoto Protocol sets numerical targets of emissions reduction for respective countries during 2008-2012 compared to 1990 levels. Japan has a target to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 6%.
1997年に日本は国連気候変動枠組条約の第三回締約国会議をホストし、そこで京都議定書が合意された。京都議定書は、先進国からの温室効果ガスの排出を1990年から2008-2012年で減らす数値目標を立てている。日本は温室効果ガスを6%削減する目標を有する。

In 1998, the Law Concerning the Promotion of the Measures to Cope with Global Warming was legislated (注37) . The law establishes responsibilities of the central government, local governments, businesses and citizens to cope with global warming. The law obligates the central government to stipulate a basic policy on measures to cope with global warming.
1998年、地球温暖化対策推進法が作られた。この法律は、政府、地方自治体、事業者、市民の地球温暖化対策における責任を確立している。また、政府に地球温暖化対策の基本計画を作る義務を負わせている。

In order to raise awareness on global warming among the public, the Ministry of the Environment has been carrying out national campaigns and calling for action. For example, a campaign promoting a lifestyle to reduce CO 2 emissions called "Team Minus 6%" started in 2005. It called for actions such as a reduction in the use of air-conditioning and the promotion of eco-driving. It also encouraged "COOL BIZ," which promotes the "business style" of being able to work in offices comfortably at 28 degrees Celsius. (注38)
環境省は、地球温暖化についての公衆の認識を高めるキャンペーンを行い、行動を呼びかけてきた。たとえば、2005年には、CO 2 を減少させるライフスタイルを振興する「チーム・マイナス6%」と呼ばれるキャンペーンが始まった。これは、エアコンの使用を減らす等の行動をとるよう呼びかけ、エコ・ドライブを推奨した。また、摂氏28度でも快適に働けるビジネススタイルである「クールビズ」を奨励した。

The Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound Material-Cycle Society in Japan 2008 lists some examples of the low-carbon society. The report mentions an example of environmentally sustainable transport such as Traffic Demand Management. The report also emphasizes development and dissemination of low carbon technology such as increasing the thermal efficiency of power plants. Thermal efficiency of thermal power plants in Japan is above 40%, substantially higher than the levels in most developing countries which are around 30%. (注39)
2008年版環境・循環型社会白書は、低炭素社会の例を示している。この報告は、交通の需要管理等の環境に優しい交通の例を示す。この報告はまた、発電プラントの熱効率向上等の低炭素技術の開発と普及を強調する。日本の火力発電所の熱効率は40%以上であり、大多数の途上国の水準である30%程度を大きく上回っている。

The Annual report on the Environment and Sound Material-Cycle Society, Biodiversity in Japan 2009 also put a strong emphasis on combating climate change. It lists policies in the "Action Plan for Achieving a Low-carbon Society" which was decided by the Cabinet in July 2008. The plan includes the following among others;
Solar power generation: Regain the best position in the world, set targets of 10-fold by 2020, 40-fold by 2030
Next generation vehicles: Increase the sales volume of new vehicles by 50% in 2020, with a range of 500km by 2030
Energy efficient lamps: Replace incandescent light bulbs with bulb-shaped fluorescent lamps in principle by around 2012 (注40)
2009年版環境・循環型社会・生物多様性白書も、気候変動対策に強い重点を置く。これは、2008年7月に閣議決定された「低炭素社会づくり行動計画」の政策を列記する。計画にはたとえば下記が含まれる。
太陽光発電:世界一奪還、2020年10倍、2030年40倍を設置
次世代自動車:2020年新車販売の1/2、2030年航続距離500kmへ
省エネランプ:2012年目途に白熱電球を原則電球型蛍光灯へ

3.2 Policies on Energy Efficiency and Non-fossil Energy 省エネルギーと非化石エネルギー関係の政策

Since a large proportion of the anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases are CO 2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion, a reduction in the use of fossil fuels by energy conservation is effective to mitigate global warming.
人為的に発生した温室効果ガスの大部分は化石燃料の燃焼によるCO 2 であるため、省エネルギーによって化石燃料の使用を減らすことは地球温暖化の緩和に有効である。

The Act on the Rational Use of Energy, which was created in 1979 during the second energy crisis, is used in the reduction of CO 2 emissions from energy sources. The Act is used to implement the measures required for the rational use of energy with regard to factories, transportation, buildings, and machinery and equipment. (注41)
エネルギー源からのCO 2 排出を減らすために、第二次石油危機の1979年に作られた「エネルギーの使用の合理化に関する法律」が使われる。この法律は、工場、輸送、建築や機械器具に関するエネルギーの合理的な使用のために必要な対策を実施するためのものだ。

The following measures, among others, are included in the Act;
法には以下の対策等が含まれる。
- A business operator that consumes large amounts of energy must appoint an energy manager who has a nationally qualified license to monitor the work related to rational energy utilization and report the status of their energy utilization to the government. A license is awarded to a person who has passed the examination or who has been authorized by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry upon completing a qualification course.
- 多くのエネルギーを消費する一定の事業者は、エネルギーの合理的な使用に関係する作業を監視するため国が認めた資格を持つエネルギー管理者を置き、エネルギーの使用について国に報告しなければならない。

- The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport establishes standards to which building owners should refer in making decisions for rationalizing energy use in their buildings. Construction clients and owners who intend to construct large buildings must submit energy-saving measures to the competent authorities before the start of construction.
- 国土交通省は、建物の持ち主がその建物でのエネルギー使用の合理化に関する決定を行う際に参照すべき基準を策定する。大規模な建築物を建てようとする建築主や持ち主は、建築開始前に省エネルギー対策を所管行政庁に届け出なければならない。

- Automobiles, air-conditioners, refrigerators, television sets, copying machines and other equipment specified in the Government Order must meet energy efficiency standards. The standards are set based on the product in the market having the highest energy efficiency of all the products of the same group. Such equipment must be marked to show their energy consumption efficiencies to assist consumers' choice. (注42)
- 自動車、エアコン、冷蔵庫、テレビ、コピー機等政令で指定された製品は、エネルギー効率の基準を満たさなければならない。基準は、市場の同種の製品の中で最高のエネルギー効率を有する製品をもとにして設定される。このような製品は、消費者の選択を助けるため、エネルギー消費効率を表示しなければならない。

As shown in Figure 3, less energy is used per unit of GDP in Japan than in other major countries/regions. Energy conservation contributes not only in the reduction of greenhouse gases, but also in the protection of the economy and the people from higher energy prices.
図3にみられるように、日本はGDP1単位当たり他の主要国/地域より少ないエネルギーを使っている。省エネルギーは温室効果ガスの削減に役立つのみならず、より高いエネルギー価格から経済や人々を守るためにも貢献する。

Figure 3. Primary Energy Supply per GDP (2006) (注43)
図3 GDP当たりの一次エネルギー供給 (2006年) 図3 GDP当たりの一次エネルギー供給 Measured in tons of oil equivalent per USD 1000 of GDP at 2000 prices and exchange rates.

Non-fossil energy, which includes renewable energies and nuclear energy, contributes to the reduction of CO 2 emissions. The government is promoting production and use of renewable energies. In November 2009, the New Purchase System for Solar Power-Generated Electricity was launched. This system obliges electric utilities to purchase excess electricity generated through solar power generation facilities at specified prices. For example, such electricity from households is purchased at \48/kWh, and that from non-households at \24/kWh. (注44)
再生可能エネルギーや原子力を含む非化石エネルギーは、CO 2 排出削減に貢献する。政府は再生可能エネルギーの生産や利用を奨励している。2009年11月、太陽光発電の新たな買い取り制度が始まった。この制度は、太陽光発電からの余剰電力を一定の価格で買い取ることを電気事業者に義務づけた。たとえば、住宅用は48円/kWh、非住宅用は24円/kWhで買い取られる。

The government is also promoting safe use of nuclear energy. "Energy in Japan 2008" (注45) and "FY2008 Annual Energy Report" (注46) includes further data and policies related to energy.
政府はまた、原子力の安全な利用を促進している。「日本のエネルギー2008」と「2008年度エネルギー白書」には、エネルギー関係のより詳細なデータや政策が掲載されている。

3.3 Future Actions to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions 温室効果ガス排出削減のための今後の行動

Substantial efforts are needed in Japan to comply with the Kyoto Protocol. The Japanese Government will continue its efforts to combat climate change.
日本が京都議定書を遵守するためには、相当の努力が必要である。日本政府は気候変動と戦う努力を続ける。

In September 2009, a new administration was established by Prime Minister Hatoyama, who has been making positive steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Shortly after taking office, he presented a statement at the United Nations Summit on Climate Change. The statement included the following:
2009年9月、新政権を担った鳩山総理は、温室効果ガス排出削減に積極的な歩みを進めている。政権発足後まもなく、彼は国連気候変動首脳会合で演説した。演説は以下を含んでいる。

Based on the discussion in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), I believe that the developed countries need to take the lead in emissions reduction efforts. It is my view that Japan should positively commit itself to setting a long-term reduction target. For its mid-term goal, Japan will aim to reduce its emissions by 25% by 2020, if compared to the 1990 level, consistent with what the science calls for in order to halt global warming.
IPCCにおける議論を踏まえ、先進国は、率先して排出削減に努める必要があると考える。わが国も長期の削減目標を定めることに積極的にコミットしていくべきであると考える。また、中期目標についても、温暖化を止めるために科学が要請する水準に基づくものとして、1990年比で言えば 2020年までに25%削減をめざす。

This is a public pledge that we made in our election manifesto. I am resolved to exercise the political will required to deliver on this promise by mobilizing all available policy tools. These will include the introduction of a domestic emission trading mechanism and a feed-in tariff for renewable energy, as well as the consideration of a global warming tax.
これは、我々が選挙時のマニフェストに掲げた政権公約であり、政治の意思として、国内排出量取引制度や、再生可能エネルギーの固定価格買取制度の導入、地球温暖化対策税の検討をはじめとして、あらゆる政策を総動員して実現をめざしていく決意である。

However, Japan's efforts alone cannot halt climate change, even if it sets an ambitious reduction target. It is imperative to establish a fair and effective international framework in which all major economies participate. The commitment of Japan to the world is premised on agreement on ambitious targets by all the major economies. (注47)
しかしながら、もちろん、我が国のみが高い削減目標を掲げても、気候変動を止めることはできない。世界のすべての主要国による、公平かつ実効性のある国際枠組みの構築が不可欠だ。すべての主要国の参加による意欲的な目標の合意が、我が国の国際社会への約束の前提となる。

In December 2009, the Minister of the Environment Sakihito Ozawa announced the start of "Challenge 25," a campaign to meet the emission reduction target mentioned above. The campaign will include proposals for life styles with less CO 2 emissions, calling for action by the public. (注48)
2009年12月、小沢鋭仁環境大臣は、上記の排出削減目標を満たすための「チャレンジ25キャンペーン」の開始を発表した。このキャンペーンは、CO 2 の少ない生活スタイルの提案などを通じて国民の行動を呼びかけるものである。

Conclusion 結論

The water and air pollution in Japan during 1950s and 1960s imposed very high costs on residents, businesses and the government of Japan. However, with the introduction of environmental policy measures, Japan's environmental quality improved to become among the best in the world.
1950年代から1960年代にかけての日本の水や大気の汚染は、日本の住民、産業、政府に非常に高い費用を課した。しかし、環境政策の導入後、日本の環境は改善し、世界の最高水準の1つとなった。

If these actions had been taken earlier, the costs incurred by the pollution could have been reduced substantially. Developing countries that take early action to improve their environments can avoid the high costs attributed to policy delays including the deterioration of health in the population and medical costs.
もし、より早い時期に行動がとられていたら、汚染によってかかった費用は相当少なくて済んだだろう。早期に環境を改善する行動をとる発展途上国は、政策の遅れによる国民の健康劣化や医療費などの高い費用を回避することができる。

Establishing laws and setting proper standards are only the first step. Laws are only effective after they are properly enforced. Both capacity of public organizations for law enforcement and understanding among the private sector are needed for a successful reduction of pollutants. More environmentally-friendly lifestyles, energy conservation and the use of renewable energy such as solar cells are important in the fight against climate change.
立法と適切な環境基準の設定は、第一歩でしかない。法は適切に執行されて初めて効果がある。汚染の低減を成功させるためには、行政機関の法執行能力と民間の理解の双方が必要である。気候変動と戦うためには、より環境に優しい生活形態、省エネルギーと、太陽電池等の再生可能エネルギーの使用が重要である。

Cooperation, among different ministries, between the central government and local governments, and between the public and private sectors is the basis for the effective enforcement of laws. Promoting understanding among the people and within the business community is necessary to encourage everyone to voluntarily take action that will reduce pollution and mitigate climate change. Messages by the leaders of the government are especially important for action both in the government and among the public. International action is vital for protection of the global environment.
省庁間、中央政府と地方自治体、官民の間の協力が、効果的な法執行の基礎である。国民と経済界の理解促進が、汚染を減らし気候変動を軽減する自主的な行動のために必要である。政府の指導者の言葉は、政府と国民双方の行動にとって特に重要である。地球環境を守るためには国際的な行動が必須である。 (注49)

脚注
  1. Overview of the Ministry of the Environment is available in a booklet issued in February 2006 and listed on the website of the Ministry. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/aboutus/pamph/html/index.html
  2. Ministry of the Environment. “History of Water environment” chapter in “Water Environmental Management in Japan”, translated in 2004 and retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/water/wq/pamph/index.html
  3. National Institute for Minamata Disease, Ministry of Environment. Minamata Disease is described in a website “Minamata Disease Archives”, retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.nimd.go.jp/archives/english/index.html
  4. English translation of the 1995 version (before the Ministry of the Environment was established) is listed on the website of the Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/laws/water/wlaw/index.html
  5. The standards are listed on the website of the Ministry of the Environment. Environmental Quality Standards for Water Pollution, retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/water/wq/wp.pdf
  6. Ministry of the Environment. Enforcement Status of the Water Pollution-related Laws in FY2008, retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/headline/headline.php?serial=1204
  7. Ministry of the Environment (2009). Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and Biodiversity in Japan 2009. (in Japanese, pp.151.). Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h21/pdf/2-2.pdf
    As for information in English, see Japan's Response to the OECD Environmental Performance Review of Japan (pp.21-22), retrieved in January 2001, from http://www.env.go.jp/houdou/gazou/6739/6739/050117c-1.pdf
  8. Ministry of the Environment. Results of the FY 2008 Water Quality Survey of Public Water Areas, retrieved in January 2001, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/headline/headline.php?serial=1190
  9. Ministry of the Environment “Results of the Monitoring of Public Water FY2008 (in Japanese)”, publicized in November 2009, retrieved in February 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/h20/full.pdf. Information on excess sites is on pages 41-43.
  10. Ministry of the Environment. Same as the above.
  11. Ministry of the Environment “Results of the Monitoring of Public Water FY2008 (in Japanese. Pp.51-53)”, publicized in November 2009, retrieved in February 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/h20/full.pdf.
    Also, information on water environment is collected and shown on a website “Comprehensive Information on Water Environment (in Japanese)”, retrieved in February 2010 from http://www2.env.go.jp/water/mizu-site/
  12. Ministry of the Environment. Water Quality in Beaches (in Japanese), retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/water/suiyoku_cho/index.html
  13. Ministry of the Environment. Kaisuiyokujo Hyakusen (in Japanese), retrieved in January 2010, from http://www2.env.go.jp/water/mizu-site/suiyoku2006/ (in Japanese)
  14. Ministry of the Environment, Results of the measurement of groundwater (in Japanese), retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/press/press.php?serial=11835
  15. Ministry of the Environment (2004). Lake Water Study Committee Report. Retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/press/2004/1014a.html
  16. Ministry of the Environment. Water & Soil & Groundwater Environment Statistics, retrieved in 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/statistics/water/index.html#w_52
    More recent data is available in Japanese from Ministry of the Environment “Results of the Monitoring of Public Water FY2008 (in Japanese)”, publicized in November 2009, retrieved in February 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/water/suiiki/h20/full.pdf, pp. 11.
  17. Infrastructure Development Institute-Japan (1999). The River Law: with Commentary by Article (pp. E3). Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.idi.or.jp/library/pdf/RIVERE.PDF
  18. Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. River Administration in Japan (pp. 11-14) Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.mlit.go.jp/river/basic_info/english/pdf/RiverAdministrationInJapan(e).pdf
    As for water purification measures, see Rivers in Japan (pp.58,59), retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.mlit.go.jp/river/basic_info/english/pdf/riversinjapan.pdf
  19. Basic structure of the Law Concerning Special Measures for the Protection of Water Quality is included in “Measures to Reduce environmental Impact at Every Stage of Water Use” chapter in “Water Environmental Management in Japan”, translated in 2004 and retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/water/wq/pamph/index.html
  20. Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, “Research on Efforts for Protecting Drinking Water Resources : March 2007 (in Japanese), retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.mhlw.go.jp/topics/bukyoku/kenkou/suido/jouhou/suisitu/o6.html
    As for drinking water supply in general, “Water Supply in Japan” was written in English by the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare , retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/policy/health/water_supply/menu.html
  21. Information on the problem of pollution such as asthma in the city of Yokkaichi is available in Japanese on a site created by Yokkaichi City. “Kogai Shiryokan”, retrieved in February 2010 from http://www.city.yokkaichi.mie.jp/kankyo/kogai.htm.
  22. The English Translation of the 1996 version (before the Ministry of the Environment was established) is listed on the website of Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/laws/air/air/index.html
  23. Ministry of the Environment. Environmental Quality Standards in Japan - Air Quality. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/air/aq/aq.html
  24. Ministry of the Environment.
    Data for FY2008 was publicized in Japanese in December 2009. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/press/press.php?serial=11925
  25. The English translation is listed on the website of the Cabinet Secretariat. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=1&re=01&dn=1&co=01&x=43&y=17&ky=%E9%9B%BB%E6%B0%97%E4%BA%8B%E6%A5%AD%E6%B3%95&page=5
  26. Ministry of the Environment (2009). Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and Biodiversity in Japan 2009 (in Japanese, pp.144), retrieved in February 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h21/pdf/2-2.pdf
  27. Ministry of the Environment. Contents of New Emission Regulation of Volatile Organic Compounds, retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/press/2005/0606a.html
  28. Ministry of the Environment. The press release on air pollution on 11 December 2009 (in Japanese), retrieved in February 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/press/press.php?serial=11889
  29. Ministry of the Environment. Atmospheric Environmental Regional Observation System, retrieved in January 2010, from http://soramame.taiki.go.jp/.
  30. Ministry of the Environment (2007) Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound Material-Cycle Society in Japan 2007 (in Japanese. pp. 29 in the paper version), retrieved in February 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h19/html/hj07010303.html#1_3_3
  31. Ministry of the Environment. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/statistics/air/index.html#a_30
    A graph with more recent information is available in Ministry of the Environment (2009). Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and Biodiversity in Japan 2009 (in Japanese, pp.129), retrieved in February 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/policy/hakusyo/h21/pdf/2-2.pdf
  32. Created by the author from figures in the OECD Environmental Indicators 2005 (pp. 54,56)
  33. The long-term changes in NO2 concentration is shown in the Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and the Biodiversity in Japan 2009 (pp. 58). Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2009/index.html
  34. Ministry of the Environment (2009). Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/air/osen/jokyo_h20/rep01.pdf (pp.4. In Japanese)
  35. Ministry of the environment (2009). Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/air/osen/jokyo_h20/rep02.pdf (pp.7. In Japanese)
  36. The UNFCCC website lists the text of the Kyoto Protocol and related information. Retrieved in February 2010 from http://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
  37. English translation is listed on the website of the Cabinet secretariat. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=4&re=01&dn=1&ty[]=A&ty[]=B&ty[]=C&ty[]=Z&ta=l0&x=94&y=25&ky=&page=5
  38. Ministry of the Environment . Introduction of Team Minus 6%, retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.team-6.jp/english/index.html
    Also, the Ministry lists sites related to Team Minus 6%. Retrieved in December 2009, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/earth/tm6/index.html
  39. Ministry of the Environment (2008). Annual Report on the Environment and the Sound Material-Cycle Society in Japan 2008 (pp.43-50. The comparison in thermal efficiencies of power plants is shown in Figure 3-2-3 on pp.46). Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2008/index.html
  40. Ministry of the Environment(2009). Annual Report on the Environment, the Sound Material-Cycle Society and Biodiversity in Japan 2009, (pp21), retrieved in December 2009, from http://www.env.go.jp/en/wpaper/2009/fulltext.pdf
  41. English translation of Act on the Rational Use of Energy is listed on the website of the Cabinet Secretariat. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/law/detail/?ft=4&re=01&dn=1&ty[]=A&ty[]=B&ty[]=C&ty[]=Z&ta=j0&x=84&y=36&ky=&page=1
  42. The Energy Conservation Center Japan . Japan Energy Conservation Handbook 2009. Retrieved in January 2010 from http://www.asiaeec-col.eccj.or.jp/databook/2009e/index.html
  43. Calculated from data in the IEA Energy Balances of OECD/Non-OECD Countries (2008 edition)
  44. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2009). Retrieved in December 2009, from http://www.meti.go.jp/english/press/data/20090831_02.html
  45. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2008). Retrieved in December 2009, from http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/english/toprunnner/index.html
  46. Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (2009). Retrieved in December 2009, from http://www.enecho.meti.go.jp/english/report/outline.pdf
  47. Cabinet Secretariat (2009). Retrieved in December 2009 , from http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/hatoyama/statement/200909/ehat_0922_e.html
  48. Ministry of the Environment. The Minister's Proposal in Japanese, retrieved in January 2010, from http://www.env.go.jp/earth/info/challenge25/
  49. Any view expressed in this paper is a personal view of the author and not an official view of the institutions to which the author belongs.

2010年2月18日掲載