China in Transition

Strengthening National Security Has Become a Top Priority for the Xi Jinping Administration
—Can it be compatible with economic development?

Chi Hung KWAN
Consulting Fellow, RIETI
Senior Fellow, Nomura Institute of Capital Markets Research

I. Introduction

The Xi Jinping administration has positioned national security as an issue of equal if not greater importance than economic development in order to overcome increasingly severe internal and external challenges and to strengthen the rule of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Based on General Secretary Xi Jinping’s concept of "comprehensive national security," which emphasizes not only traditional security areas such as politics, military, and territory, but also non-traditional security areas such as economy, society, and science and technology, China is developing relevant laws, while strengthening economic controls, increasing military power, and aiming to achieve more self-sufficiency in technology. However, these measures will inevitably have a negative impact on the economy as they place new restrictions on the business activities of a wide range of companies—particularly foreign companies doing business with China—making it difficult for China to achieve both national security and economic development at the same time.

II. A return from prioritizing economic development to prioritizing national security

Since the Communist regime came to power in China in 1949, the leadership's top priority has gone through three stages: from national security to economic development and now back to national security.

At the beginning of the Communist regime, China faced serious difficulties, including economic blockades, political isolation, and military threats. In the Cold War era of "war and revolution," the leadership prioritized national security in order to defend the country against external military aggression, preserve national territory, and maintain sovereign independence and the stability of the regime.

By the end of the 1970s, with the shift to reform and opening up, China entered an era of "peace and development," and the most important issue for the leadership shifted from national security to economic development. Thanks to a peaceful international environment, China achieved high growth over a long period of time. With the end of the Cold War and the retreat of the traditional ideology of socialism, economic development and the accompanying dramatic improvement in people's lives provided Communist Party rule with legitimacy and the regime with stability.

However, in response to changes in domestic and international circumstances, national security has once again become the foremost concern for the Xi Jinping administration, which came to power after the 18th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (Party Congress) in November 2012.

Domestically, the country faces serious challenges, including slowing economic growth, instability in social and ethnic minority areas, and environmental pollution. General Secretary Xi Jinping has emphasized national security as key to addressing these challenges and promoting social stability. In addition, while economic growth has long been a priority, national security is taking its place as the most critical force bolstering the legitimacy and power of the Communist Party. Furthermore, ensuring national security is essential for fulfilling General Secretary Xi Jinping’s commitment to realizing "the great revival of the Chinese nation" and turning China into the most powerful country in the world.

Meanwhile, in foreign relations, the conflict between China and the United States has intensified in a variety of areas, including economic, technological, and military. General Secretary Xi Jinping seeks to counter the U.S. threat by strengthening national security. For a long time, China has shown concern that the United States and other Western adversaries are plotting to tumble its political regime and socialist system from within through a process of “peaceful evolution,” which involves "political propaganda," "economic support," and "cultural exchange." This concern has deepened under the Xi Jinping administration, against the backdrop of the escalating U.S.-China confrontation (Note 1).

III. The concept of "comprehensive national security" which outlines the basic principles of national security policy

The Xi Jinping administration has been active in strengthening national security since its inauguration. At the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China held in November 2013, the decision was made to "establish a national security committee, perfect the national security system and security strategy, and ensure national security" (Note 2). On April 15, 2014, at the first meeting of the Central State Security Committee, General Secretary Xi Jinping presented for the first time the concept of "comprehensive national security" as the guide for national security policy. It can be summarized into "five elements" and "five relationships," with a “comprehensive” (holistic) focus.

First, the “five elements” are embedded in the following statement. “China must adhere to the concept of comprehensive national security, taking 1) people's security as the purpose, 2) political security as the base, 3) economic security as the foundation, 4) military, cultural and social security as the guarantee, and 5) promotion of international security as the backbone, thus embarking on a national security path with Chinese characteristics.”

In addition, the contents of the "five relationships" are as follows.

  1. (1) "External security and internal security" must be pursued together. While internal security aims to build a secure China by pursuing development, reform, and stability, external security aims to build a harmonious world by pursuing peace, cooperation, and win-win situations.
  2. (2) We must firmly build a popular foundation for national security by emphasizing both "territorial security and people’s security," adhering to a people-oriented and human-oriented stance, while maintaining that national security is entirely for the people and entirely dependent on the people.
  3. (3) "Traditional and non-traditional security" must be emphasized together to build a national security system that integrates political, military, territorial, economic, cultural, societal, science and technology, information, ecological, natural resource, nuclear, and other security aspects.
  4. (4) "Development issues and security issues" must be emphasized together. Development is the foundation of security, and security is a condition for development. Only by enriching the country can the military be strengthened, and only by strengthening the military can the country be defended.
  5. (5) We must emphasize "self-security and joint security" together in order to build a "global community of a shared future" and encourage all sides to move toward the goals of mutual benefit and joint security (Note 3).

While (4) includes the statement “development issues and security issues must be emphasized together” as a basic principle, in subsequent practice, security seems to have become more important than development (Note 4).

Subsequently, the concept of "comprehensive national security" became one of the pillars of the CCP's governing philosophy. The Party's 14-point strategy for governing the country in the "New Era of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics" presented in the 19th Party Congress Report (October 18, 2017) included "adherence to the concept of comprehensive national security." In addition, the CCP Charter revised at the same Party Congress stated that: "The Party should adhere to the concept of comprehensive national security, promote development while ensuring security, and resolutely safeguard China's sovereignty, security, and development interests.”

IV. The changing concept of "comprehensive national security"

It has been almost a decade since the concept of "comprehensive national security" was first published, and its content is gradually changing.

First, regarding the "five elements," at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China in October 2019, "science and technology security" came to be considered a "guarantee" of national security alongside the traditional "military, cultural, and social security (Note 5)."

In addition, the previous "five relationships" were revised to "five relationships to be coordinated" in the 19th Party Congress Report. "Development and security issues,” the fourth item in the "five relationships," was changed to "coordination of development and security" and promoted to the first item in the "five relationships to be coordinated" (the second and subsequent items are "coordination of external security and internal security," "coordination of territorial security and people’s security," "coordination of traditional security and non-traditional security," and "coordination of self-security and joint security," in that order) (Note 6).

In addition, the priority areas for national security have expanded. The "Resolution of the CCP Central Committee on the Significant Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party's Centennial Struggle" (November 11, 2021), adopted at the 6th Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, listed 16 priority areas, adding overseas interests and new areas such as space, deep sea, polar regions, and biotechnology to the 11 priority areas listed in "traditional and non-traditional security" above. In addition, "intelligence," one of the eleven priority areas, was renamed "cyber". Subsequently, in the Study Outline of the Concept of Comprehensive National Security, compiled by the Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the Office of the Central State Security Commission (April 2022), finance, food, artificial intelligence, and data were added, bringing the number of priority areas for national security to 20 (Table 1).

Table 1: Priority Areas for National Security
Table 1: Priority Areas for National Security
[Click to enlarge]
Table 1: Priority Areas for National Security
Sources: Compiled by the author, based on various sources, including the Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the Office of the Central State Security Commission, Study Outline of the Concept of Comprehensive National Security, Xuexi Publishing House and People's Publishing House, April 2022.
Sources: Compiled by the author, based on various sources, including the Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the Office of the Central State Security Commission, Study Outline of the Concept of Comprehensive National Security, Xuexi Publishing House and People's Publishing House, April 2022.

In this context, not only the economy, but also finance, science and technology, food, and natural resources are now considered to be areas that are integral to economic security. According to the CCP's official explanation, the following measures are necessary to achieve economic security.

  1. (1) The socialist market economy system and market order must be protected and the security of key industries and priority sectors that are the lifeblood of the national economy must be ensured.
  2. (2) The construction of a modern economic system must be accelerated to improve the resilience and security of the supply chain.
  3. (3) Prevention and management of financial and municipal debt risk must be strengthened to prevent systemic risk from occurring.
  4. (4) A stable supply of resources and energy must be ensured.
  5. (5) The minimum arable land area of 1.8 billion “mu” must be maintained, and support for agricultural technology and equipment must be strengthened to ensure a secure food supply for the people (Note 7).
  6. (6) Indigenous innovation capacity must be strengthened further and the development of advanced technologies must be accelerated (Note 8).

It was then clarified that "political security" is the most important target area of the concept of "comprehensive national security." At the 26th Collective Study Session of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China held on December 11, 2020, General Secretary Xi Jinping highlighted "giving top priority to political security" as one of the ten requirements for pursuing the concept of "comprehensive national security " (Table 2). According to the official explanation of the CCP, "The basis of political security is regime security and institutional security, and the most fundamental objective is to maintain the leadership and stewardship of the CCP and to protect the socialist system with Chinese characteristics. Hostile forces from a variety of sources are relentlessly implementing a strategy of westernization and division within our country and maintain constant subversive activities against the leadership of the CCP and our country's socialist system, attempting to plan a ‘color revolution’ throughout our country. We must adhere to the Party's overall leadership, thoroughly implement ideological work, continue to firmly bolster mainstream public opinion, and vigorously prevent and resolutely strike at all forms of infiltration and subversion activities (Note 9)."

Table 2: Ten Requirements for Pursuing the Concept of "Comprehensive National Security"
Table 2: Ten Requirements for Pursuing the Concept of
Source: "At the 26th Collective Study Session of the Political Bureau of the Communist Party of China (CCP) Central Committee, Xi Jinping stressed that we should adhere to systematic thinking, build a pattern of great security and provide solid guarantees for the construction of a modernized socialist state," Xinhua News Agency, December 12, 2020.

V. Development of relevant laws in line with the concept "comprehensive national security”

In line with the concept of "comprehensive national security," the Xi Jinping administration has been developing security-related laws, including the National Security Law (of the People’s Republic of China).

The National Security Law, which came into force on July 1, 2015, clearly defines in legal terms the concept of "comprehensive national security" as the guiding principle for national security activities (Article 3). Under this law, "national security" involves not only the national government, sovereignty, unity, and territorial integrity, but also the welfare of the people, sustainable economic and social development, and other vital interests of the state (Article 2). It also clearly states that in addition to state institutions and the armed forces, citizens and companies are also required to assume the responsibility and duty of maintaining national security (Article 11). Furthermore, in order to raise awareness of such public participation duties, April 15 of each year is designated as the National Safety Education Day for all citizens (Article 14). Using the National Security Law as a legal basis, citizens are encouraged to actively monitor and report potential national security threats. As part of the program, a "National Security Hotline" was set up by the Ministry of National Security in June 2022, with rewards of up to 100,000 yuan or more for informants (Note 10).

Following the National Security Law, a series of national security-related laws went into effect, including the Anti-Terrorism Law (January 1, 2016), the Management of Foreign Non-Governmental Organizations' Activities Within Mainland China Law (January 1, 2017), the Cyber Security Law (June 1, 2017), the National Intelligence Law (June 28, 2017), the Nuclear Security Law (January 1, 2018), the Foreign Investment Law (January 1, 2020), the Law of the People's Republic of China on Safeguarding National Security in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (June 30, 2020), the Biosafety Law (April 15, 2021), the Anti-Foreign Sanctions Law (June 10, 2021), the Data Security Law (September 1, 2021), the revised Anti-Espionage Law (July 1, 2023), and the revised Law on Guarding State Secrets (May 1, 2024).

Among them, the revised Anti-Espionage Law made the following significant changes to the previously amended Anti-Espionage Law (effective 2014)

  1. (1) Expanded definition of espionage: in addition to the existing "state secrets," the definition now includes "documents, data, materials, and articles” relating to national security and interests (Note 11).
  2. (2) Mandatory national security preventive measures: companies and organizations are now obliged to take measures to prevent espionage under the guidance of the national security agencies.
  3. (3) Strengthened investigative and disciplinary measures for espionage: the investigative powers of state security agencies have been strengthened and the penalties for those who commit espionage have been increased.
  4. (4) Clarification of legal responsibility: not only those conducting espionage, but also those who aid and abet or conceal the act will be punished.

The aim of these laws is to broaden the scope of national security, strengthen the authority of national security agencies, and impose obligations on various parties, including foreign companies, to cooperate with national security (Note 12). On the other hand, there is criticism for the lack of attention to oversight and transparency of state security agencies, protection of human rights and privacy, and freedom and fair competition in the marketplace (Note 13).

VI. Tighter regulations targeting foreign-invested enterprises

Needless to say, the above regulations also apply to foreign-invested enterprises. For example, the revised Anti-Espionage Law requires foreign-invested enterprises to establish an internal control system to prevent espionage, just as Chinese companies do. Specifically, the regulations stipulate the implementation of education and training for employees, the strengthening of information security measures, and the obligation to report suspected espionage.

Regarding the revised Anti-Espionage Law, the U.S. National Counterintelligence and Security Center (NCSC) warns that normal business activities by U.S. and other foreign companies operating in China may also be punishable by Chinese authorities (Note 14). In addition, at least 17 Japanese nationals have been detained in China since 2015, the year after the implementation of the Anti-Espionage Law, having been charged with espionage (Note 15).

In addition to the revised Anti-Espionage Law, the following regulatory tightening, which mainly targets international transactions in which foreign-invested enterprises are deeply involved, also places significant restrictions on foreign-invested enterprises' business in China.

  1. (1) Strengthen security screening of foreign-invested companies
    The National Security Law and the Foreign Investment Law require prior examination of foreign-invested enterprises that could potentially affect national security. Many foreign companies are affected because the review includes not only companies involved in critical technology and infrastructure, but also companies that collect and analyze data.
  2. (2) Tighter regulations on technology exports from China
    Apart from the export control of dual-use items and munitions from a security perspective, the export control of general technology is stipulated in the Foreign Trade Law and its subordinate law, the Technology Import and Export Control Ordinance. Exports of general technology are classified and controlled by the List of Prohibited and Restricted Export Technologies, which is divided into three categories: "Prohibited Export Technologies," "Restricted Export Technologies," and "Free Export Technologies.” In recent years, export controls on general technology have also begun to focus on security factors. In particular, in the August 2020 revision of the List of Prohibited and Restricted Export Technologies, the latest technologies in the fields of artificial intelligence and information technology were added to the list of restricted technologies.
  3. (3) Tighter restrictions on foreign investment in certain sectors
    China has implemented a negative list system for accepting foreign-invested companies, and some sectors are prohibited or restricted for national security and other reasons (Note 16). In recent years, sectors in which Chinese companies have become increasingly competitive, such as automobile manufacturing, have been removed from the "Special Administrative Measures for Foreign Investment Entry (Negative List)" applicable to foreign-invested enterprises, while entry restrictions on foreign-invested enterprises in sectors related to national security have been maintained.
  4. (4) Strengthening of data security regulations
    The Data Security Act requires companies to take security measures for the data they collect and use. It also places restrictions on the transfer of critical data out of the country.
  5. (5) Implementation of the "Unreliable Entity List" system
    On September 19, 2020, the "Unreliable Entity List" system was promulgated and implemented to prohibit import and export activities, restrict investment activities, and impose other sanctions against foreign companies and other entities that have suspended transactions with Chinese companies in violation of its "principles of normal market transactions." In the first operation of the "Unreliable Entity List" system, the Ministry of Commerce announced that on February 16, 2023, it will place two U.S. companies on the list (Lockheed Martin and Raytheon Missiles and Defense) for undermining China's security and sovereignty and territorial integrity through their weapons sales to Taiwan.

In response to the above regulatory tightening, foreign-invested companies must invest a great deal of human and financial resources and modify their compliance and risk management systems to ensure that they do not violate Chinese laws. Against this backdrop, foreign companies' willingness to do business in China has further deteriorated (Note 17). At the same time, it has become increasingly difficult for China to benefit from its "latecomer's advantage" by introducing technology from overseas at low cost through international trade and investment, as it did in the past.

VII. Negative impact on the economy causing concern

The negative effects of the full rollout of the national security policy may not be limited to foreign-invested enterprises, but may extend to the overall economy, including to Chinese enterprises. This has manifested itself mainly as a side effect of tightening economic controls, the build-up of military power, and a push for technological self-sufficiency.

First, in recent years, the Chinese government has tightened regulations not only on foreign-invested companies but also on Chinese companies in the name of strengthening national security. Companies are forced to reduce their scope of operations and take a more cautious investment decision stance in order to avoid regulatory risk. This situation is considered more serious for private enterprises, which are more vulnerable to crackdowns than state-owned enterprises. A symbolic example of a Chinese company that was punished for violating national security is Didi, China’s leading mobile transportation platform. Didi was fined RMB 8.026 billion on July 21, 2022, following an investigation by the authorities that began in July 2021, for illegally collecting user information and processing data that could seriously affect national security, among other reasons. Didi was listed on the NYSE on June 30, 2021, but was forced to delist in June 2022. During that time, the stock price fell by more than 80%.

Second, China is trying to strengthen its military power with the goal of "building up the People’s Liberation Army into a world-class military force at an early date" (20th Party Congress Report). However, increased defense spending could increase the government's fiscal burden and suppress private investment through higher taxes and other means. In addition, heightened military tensions could lead to a decline in international trade and investment. Furthermore, concentrating economic resources in military industry may slow technological innovation in civilian industry.

And in an effort to become self-sufficient in technology, the Chinese government has identified and is actively supporting technologies related to national security, such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing, and aerospace technology. It is also increasing its investment in basic and applied research to enhance the technological capabilities of Chinese companies. In addition, it seeks to maintain the technological superiority of Chinese firms by restricting the overseas transfer of military, information, and other technologies related to national security. However, the pursuit of self-sufficiency in technology costs a lot more than introducing technology from abroad, and this could lead to a decline in China's international competitiveness and stagnation in productivity growth. Furthermore, by isolating Chinese companies from international competition, a shift towards self-reliance of technology could hinder the competitive mechanism that has been a major force driving innovation.

Thus, China may have difficulty reconciling the goals of national security and economic development. China's economic growth rate has been declining for about a decade against the backdrop of a low birthrate and aging population, a slowdown in the pace of market-oriented reforms, and a technology blockade by the United States, and the strengthening of national security is likely to aggravate this trend.

The original text in Japanese was posted on March 13, 2024.

Footnote(s)
  1. ^ The "Circular on the Current Situation in the Ideological Domain" (Central Office of the Communist Party of China), distributed within the Communist Party on April 22, 2013, soon after the Xi Jinping administration took office, lists as dangerous ideas that could overthrow the Communist Party's power: Western constitutional democracy (separation of powers, plural party system, universal suffrage, judicial independence, and the nationalization of the military), universal values (freedom, democracy, and human rights in the West), civil society, neoliberalism, freedom of the press, historical "nihilism" (historical perceptions that deviate from the official Communist Party position), and doubts about reform and opening up. Buckley, Chris, "China Takes Aim at Western Ideas," The New York Times, August 19, 2013. <https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/20/world/asia/chinas-new-leadership-takes-hard-line-in-secret-memo.html?_r=0>
  2. ^ “Decision of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Some Major Issues Concerning Comprehensively Deepening the Reform” adopted at the Third Plenary Session of the 18th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, November 12, 2013.
  3. ^ In order to build a joint security framework, China has proposed the "Global Security Initiative," which consists of the following six items: (1) adherence to a version of common, comprehensive, cooperative and sustainable security; (2) adherence to respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all countries; (3) adherence to the aims and principles of the UN Charter; (4) adherence to the importance of legitimate security concerns of all countries; (5) adherence to peaceful ways to resolve inter-state differences and disputes through dialogue and consultation; and (6) adherence to maintaining security in traditional and non-traditional areas in an integrated manner. (Keynote speech by President Xi Jinping at the Boao Forum on Asia, April 21, 2022).
  4. ^ "'Japan and China Should Resolve their Individual Concerns'...Interview with Hideo Tarui, Former Ambassador to China, Xi Administration is a 'One-man ruling System,'" Yomiuri Shimbun, December 29, 2023.
  5. ^ "Party Central Decision on Some Major Issues of Adhering to and Improving the Socialist System with Chinese Characteristics and Promoting the Modernization of the State Governance System and Governance Capacity," adopted at the Fourth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, October 31, 2019.
  6. ^ Subsequently, in the "Resolution of the CCP Central Committee on the Important Achievements and Historical Experience of the Party's Centennial Struggle" (November 11, 2021) of the Sixth Plenary Session of the 19th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, "coordination of external security and internal security" was changed to "coordination of opening and security." At the same time, "coordination of territorial security and people’s security" was deleted, while "coordination of ensuring and building national security" was added.
  7. ^ 1 mu = 666.7 square meters.
  8. ^ The Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China , Study Outline of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era , Xuexi Publishing House and People's Publishing House, 2023 edition.
  9. ^ 9::The Publicity Department of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China, Study Outline of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era, Xuexi Publishing House and People's Publishing House, June 2019.
  10. ^ Ministry of National Security, "Measures to Encourage Reporting of Acts of National Security Hazards by Citizens," promulgated and enforced on June 6, 2022.
  11. ^ The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan has identified the following as examples of activities that require attention that could be considered espionage or other illegal activities under the revised " Anti-Espionage Law " in China: (1) acquisition, possession, exfiltration, or provision to foreign organizations of information (including documents, data, maps, etc.) that is considered state secrets or intelligence of the Chinese government. (2) Unauthorized entry into or photographing in areas marked as "military prohibited zones" or "military controlled zones," and (3) unauthorized collection, acquisition or possession of geographic information involving surveys using the Global Positioning System (GPS), geological surveys such as hot spring drilling, ecological surveys, or archaeological surveys, (4) unauthorized statistical surveys or academic sample surveys (such as distribution of questionnaires), (5) photographing (including sketches) military-related facilities, border control facilities, demonstrations, or other political activities, (6) engaging in rallies and marches, demonstrative activities, and distribution of leaflets that are considered political, and (7) activities of unauthorized religious organizations, religious activities in unauthorized places, and unauthorized missionary activities and gatherings ("Dangerous Information on the People's Republic of China: Examples of Activities to Be Aware of that May be Considered Espionage or Other Illegal Activities," Foreign Ministry Overseas Safety website, updated June 30, 2023).
  12. ^ In addition to the development of relevant laws, public opinion control is also used as a means of strengthening national security. As one example, at the Central Economic Work Conference held on December 11-12, 2023, it was announced that "economic propaganda and public opinion guidance will be strengthened, and the 'Chinese Economic Bright Theory' will be proclaimed in high spirits. In response, the Chinese media reported extremely optimistically about the outlook for the Chinese economy. Meanwhile, the Ministry of State Security (SSS) has decried various forms of Chinese economic pessimism as an attack on China's distinctive socialist system and warned that it would crack down on them as illegal acts in violation of economic security ("Decisively Building Up the Economic Security Barrier," official account on the SNS "Weixin" of the Ministry of State Security, December 15, 2023).
    ＜https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/pOVcm_d82q_cNr6VXqIHsw>
  13. ^ Drinhausen, Katja and Helena Legarda, "'Comprehensive National Security' Unleashed: How Xi's Approach Shapes China 's Policies at Home and Abroad," MERICS, September 15, 2022.
    ＜https://merics.org/en/report/comprehensive-national-security-unleashed-how-xis-approach-shapes-chinas-policies-home-and>
  14. ^ "Risks to U.S. and Foreign Companies Increase, China's Revised Anti-Espionage Law , U.S. Officials Warn," Reuters, July 1, 2023.
  15. ^ "Japanese Man Detained in China Has Appeal Dismissed, 12 Years in Prison Finalized," NHK website, November 12, 2023.
  16. ^ In addition to the "Special Management Measures for Foreign Investment Entry (Negative List)," foreign-invested enterprises are subject to the "Market Entry Negative List, which also applies to Chinese enterprises.
  17. ^ According to preliminary balance of payments statistics released by China's State Administration of Foreign Exchange on February 18, 2024, China's inward direct investment fell sharply in 2023 by 81.7% year-on-year to $33 billion, down more than 90% from its peak of $344.1 billion in 2021.
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